Discrimination unveiled: a field experiment on the barriers faced by Muslim women in Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain

Abstract We examine the penalties faced by veiled and unveiled Muslim women when applying for jobs in three European labour markets: Germany, Netherlands, Spain. rely on recent literature comparing public opposition towards Muslims general to Muslims’ religious practices, such as wearing of hijab. Based a cross-nationally harmonized field experiment hiring discrimination, we use two different signals Muslimness (volunteering activities community centre or headscarf) identify whether employers discriminate against group adhering specific practices—in this case, headscarf. present robust evidence that are discriminated Germany but only require high level customer contact. In Spain, however, discrimination is much smaller than other countries. The found where institutional context has traditionally been open accommodation minority rights, particularly surprising points possibly stigmatizing effect policies geared cultural assimilation immigrants.